Ofrecimiento de consuelo post conflicto desde una perspectiva comparada: características, factores moduladores y su relación con la empatía
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.24215/15142590e084Palavras-chave:
conductas afiliativas, agresión, estrés, preocupación empáticaResumo
El ofrecimiento de consuelo es una de las estrategias que los individuos despliegan para el manejo de los conflictos que inevitablemente surgen en los grupos. Uno de los principales paradigmas para su estudio es el de “post conflicto”, en el cual el consuelo implica la emisión de conductas afiliativas espontáneas, de parte de un tercero no involucrado, hacia la víctima del conflicto. En el presente trabajo, utilizando una perspectiva comparativa, se define el consuelo y sus características, se describe el paradigma post conflicto y se analiza la importancia de factores moduladores como la presencia o no de reconciliación, el grado de vínculo entre quien consuela y la víctima, la edad y la tendencia a consolar de cada individuo, el sexo de los individuos, su proximidad física, el grado de estrés del observador, la severidad del conflicto y las señales de estrés exhibidas por la víctima luego del conflicto. Por último, se discute la relación entre consuelo y empatía. El estudio de este fenómeno es de gran relevancia por su rol en el mantenimiento de las relaciones sociales, así como en la regulación de las emociones consecuentes a la ocurrencia de los conflictos en el seno de un grupo.
Downloads
Métricas
Referências
Aureli F, van Schaik CP. 1991. Post‐conflict Behaviour in Long‐tailed Macaques (Macaca fascicularis). Ethology. 89(2):89–100. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1439-0310.1991.tb00296.x
Aureli F. 1992. Post-conflict behaviour among wild long-tailed macaques (Macaca fascicularis). Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology. 31:329-337. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00177773
Aureli F. 1998. Post‐conflict anxiety in nonhuman primates: The mediating role of emotion in conflict resolution. Aggressive Behavior: Official Journal of the International Society for Research on Aggression. 23(5):315-328. https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1098-2337(1997)23:5<315::AID-AB2>3.0.CO;2-H
Aureli F, Cords M, van Schaik CP. 2002. Conflict resolution following aggression in gregarious animals: a predictive framework. Animal behaviour. 64(3): 325-343. https://doi.org/10.1006/anbe.2002.3071
Baan C, Bergmüller R, Smith DW, Molnar B. 2014. Conflict management in free-ranging wolves, Canis lupus. Animal Behaviour. 90:327-334. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.anbehav.2014.01.033
Bartal IBA, Decety J, Mason P. 2011. Empathy and pro-social behavior in rats. Science. 334 (6061):1427-1430. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1210789
Bray J, Feldblum JT, Gilby IC. 2021. Social bonds predict dominance trajectories in adult male chimpanzees. Animal Behaviour. 179: 339-354. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.anbehav.2021.06.031
Butovskaya ML, Boyko EY, Selverova NB, Ermakova IV. 2005. The hormonal basis of reconciliation in humans. Journal of Physiological Anthropology and Applied Human Science. 24(4):333-37. https:// doi.org/10.2114/jpa.24.333
Call J, Aureli F, de Waal FBM. 1999. Reconciliation patterns among stumptailed macaques: a multivariate approach. Animal Behaviour. 58(1):165-72. https://doi.org/10.1006/anbe.1999.1116
Call J, Aureli F, de Waal FBM. 2002. Postconflict third-party affiliation in stumptailed macaques. Animal Behaviour. 63(2):209-16. https://doi.org/10.1006/anbe.2001.1908
Cavanaugh J, Mustoe A, French JA. 2018. Oxytocin regulates reunion affiliation with a pairmate following social separation in marmosets. American Journal of Primatology. 80(10):e22750. https://doi.org/ 10.1002/ajp.22750
Chapais B. 2001. Primate nepotism: what is the explanatory value of kin selection? International Journal of Primatology. 22(2):203-29. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1005619430744
Clay Z, de Waal FBM. 2013. Bonobos respond to distress in others: consolation across the age spectrum. PLoS ONE. 8(1):e55206. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0055206
Cohen S, Wills TA. 1985. Stress, social support, and the buffering hypothesis. Psychological Bulletin. 98(2):310-57. https://doi.org/10.1037//0033-2909.98.2.310
Cools AKA, Van Hout AJM, Nelissen MHJ. 2008. Canine reconciliation and third-party-initiated postconflict affiliation: do peacemaking social mechanisms in dogs rival those of higher primates? Ethology. 114(1):53-63. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1439-0310.2007.01443.x
Cordoni G, Palagi E, Tarli SB. 2006. Reconciliation and consolation in captive Western gorillas. International Journal of Primatology. 27(5):1365-82. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10764-006-9078-4
Cordoni G, Palagi E. 2007. Response of captive lowland gorillas (Gorilla gorilla gorilla) to different housing conditions: testing the aggression- density and coping models. Journal of Comparative Psychology. 121(2):171-80. https://doi.org/10.1037/0735-7036.121.2.171
Cordoni G, Palagi E. 2008. Reconciliation in wolves (Canis lupus): new evidence for a comparative perspective. Ethology. 114(3):298-308. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1439-0310.2008.01474.x
Cordoni G, Palagi E. 2015. Being a victim or an aggressor: different functions of triadic post‐conflict interactions in wolves (Canis lupus lupus). Aggressive Behavior. 41(6):526-36. https://doi.org/10.1002/ ab.21590
Cordoni G, Comin M, Collarini E, Robino C, Chierto E, Norscia I. 2022. Domestic pigs (Sus scrofa) engage in non-random post-conflict affiliation with third parties: cognitive and functional implications. Animal Cognition. 26(2):687-701. https://doi.org/10.1007/ s10071-022-01688-4
Cozzi A, Sighieri C, Gazzano A, Nicol CJ, Baragli P. 2010. Post-conflict friendly reunion in a permanent group of horses (Equus caballus). Behavioural Processes. 85(2):185-190. https://doi.org/10.1016/ j.beproc.2010.07.007
Cronin KA, Van Leeuwen EJC, Vreeman V, Haun DBM. 2014. Population- level variability in the social climates of four chimpanzee societies. Evolution and Human Behavior. 35(5):389-96. https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2014.05.004
de Waal FBM, van Roosmalen A. 1979. Reconciliation and consolation among chimpanzees. Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology. 5:55-66. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00302695
de Waal FBM, Yoshihara D. 1983. Reconciliation and redirected affection in rhesus monkeys. Behaviour. 85(3/4):224-41. http://www.jstor.org/ stable/4534264
de Waal FBM. 2000. Primates—a natural heritage of conflict resolution. Science. 289(5479):586-90. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.289.5479.586
de Waal FBM. 2008. Putting the altruism back into altruism: the evolution of empathy. Annual Review of Psychology. 59(1):279-300. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.59.103006.093625
de Waal, FBM, Preston SD. 2017. Mammalian empathy: behavioural manifestations and neural basis. Nature Reviews Neuroscience. 18(8):498-509. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrn.2017.72
Decety J, Bartal IBA, Uzefovsky F, Knafo-Noam A. 2016. Empathy as a driver of prosocial behaviour: highly conserved neurobehavioural mechanisms across species. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 371(1686): 20150077. https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2015.0077
Duboscq J, Agil M, Engelhardt A, Thierry B. 2014. The function of postconflict interactions: new prospects from the study of a tolerant species of primate. Animal Behaviour. 87:107-20. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.anbehav.2013.10.018
Eisenberg N, Miller PA. 1987. The relation of empathy to prosocial and related behaviors. Psychological Bulletin. 101(1):91-119. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.101.1.91
Fraser ON, Stahl D, Aureli F. 2008. Stress reduction through consolation in chimpanzees. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 105(25):8557-62. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0804141105
Fraser ON, Koski SE, Wittig RM, Aureli F. 2009. Why are bystanders friendly to recipients of aggression? Communicative & Integrative Biology. 2(3):285-91. https://doi.org/10.4161/cib.2.3.8718
Fraser ON, Bugnyar T. 2010. Do ravens show consolation? Responses to distressed others. PLoS ONE. 5(5):e10605. https://doi.org/10.1371/ journal.pone.0010605
Freiwald WA. 2020. Social interaction networks in the primate brain. Current Opinion in Neurobiology, 65:49-58. https://doi.org/ 10.1016/j.conb.2020.08.012
Fujisawa KK, Kutsukake N, Hasegawa T. 2006. Peacemaking and consolation in Japanese preschoolers witnessing peer aggression. Journal of Comparative Psychology. 120(1):48-57. https://doi.org/ 10.1037/0735-7036.120.1.48
Heesen R, Austry DA, Upton Z, Clay Z. 2022. Flexible signalling strategies by victims mediate post-conflict interactions in bonobos. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B. 377(1860):20210310. https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2021.0310
Heinla I, Heijkoop R, Houwing DJ, Olivier JDA, Snoeren EMS. 2020. Third-party prosocial behavior in adult female rats is impaired after perinatal fluoxetine exposure. Physiology & Behavior. 222:112899. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.physbeh.2020.112899
Hobson JA, Harris R, García‐Pérez R, Hobson RP. 2009. Anticipatory concern: a study in autism. Developmental Science. 12(2):249-63. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-7687.2008.00762.x
Ikkatai Y, Watanabe S, Izawa EI. 2016. Reconciliation and third-party affiliation in pair-bond budgerigars (Melopsittacus undulatus). Behaviour. 153(9-11):1173-93. https://doi.org/10.1163/1568539X-00003388
Judge PG, 1991. Dyadic and triadic reconciliation in pigtail macaques (Macaca nemestrina). American Journal of Primatology. 23(4):225-37. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajp.1350230403
Judge PG, Mullen SH. 2005. Quadratic postconflict affiliation among bystanders in a hamadryas baboon group. Animal Behaviour. 69(6):1345-55. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.anbehav.2004.08.016
Keysers C. 2022. A cross-species approach to empathy, its neurobiology and relation to prosocial behavior. Biological Psychiatry. 91(9):S1. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2022.02.022
Kikusui T, Winslow JT, Mori Y. 2006. Social buffering: relief from stress and anxiety. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 361(1476):2215-28. https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2006.1941
Koski SE, Sterck EHM. 2007. Triadic postconflict affiliation in captive chimpanzees: does consolation console? Animal Behaviour. 73(1):133-42. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.anbehav.2006.04.009
Kutsukake N, Castles DL. 2004. Reconciliation and post-conflict third-party affiliation among wild chimpanzees in the Mahale Mountains, Tanzania. Primates. 45:157-65. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10329-004-0082-z
Li LF, Yuan W, He ZX, Wang LM, Jing XY, Zhang J, Yang Y, Guo QQ, Zhang XN, Cai WQ, Hou WJ, JiaR, Tai FD. 2019. Involvement of oxytocin and GABA in consolation behavior elicited by socially defeated individuals in mandarin voles. Psychoneuroendocrinology. 103:14-24. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psyneuen.2018.12.238
Logan CJ, Emery NJ, Clayton NS. 2013. Alternative behavioral measures of postconflict affiliation. Behavioral Ecology. 24(1):98-112. https://doi.org/10.1093/beheco/ars140
Mallavarapu S, Stoinski TS, Bloomsmith MA, Maple TL. 2006. Post conflict behavior in captive western lowland gorillas (Gorilla gorilla gorilla). American Journal of Primatology. 68(8):789-801. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajp.20279
Maestripieri D, Schino G, Aureli F, Troisi A. 1992. A modest proposal: displacement activities as an indicator of emotions in primates. Animal Behaviour. 44(5):967-79. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0003-3472(05)80592-5
McFarland R, Majolo B. 2011. Reconciliation and the costs of aggression in wild Barbary macaques (Macaca sylvanus): a test of the integrated hypothesis. Ethology. 117(10):928-37. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1439-0310.2011.01948.x
McFarland R, Majolo B. 2012. The occurrence and benefits of postconflict bystander affiliation in wild Barbary macaques, Macaca sylvanus. Animal Behaviour. 84(3):583-91. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.anbehav.2012.06.010
Norscia I, Collarini E, Robino C, Chierto E, Cordoni G. 2023. Witness for resolution: post-conflict quadratic affiliation in semi-free ranging pigs. Current Zoology. 70(2), 233–243. https://doi.org/10.1093/cz/zoad016
Palagi E, Paoli T, Borgognini Tarli S. 2004. Reconciliation and consolation in captive bonobos (Pan paniscus). American Journal of Primatology: Official Journal of the American Society of Primatologists. 62(1):15-30. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajp.20000
Palagi E, Cordoni G, Borgognini Tarli S. 2006. Possible roles of consolation in captive chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes). American Journal of Biological Anthropology. 129(1):105-11. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajpa.20242
Palagi E, Paoli T, Borgognini Tarli S. 2004. Reconciliation and consolation in captive bonobos (Pan paniscus). American Journal of Primatology: Official Journal of the American Society of Primatologists. 62(1):15-30. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajp.20000
Palagi E, Norscia I. 2013. Bonobos protect and console friends and kin. PLoS ONE. 8(11): e79290. https://doi.org/10.1371/ journal.pone.0079290
Palagi E, Dall'Olio S, Demuru D, Stanyon R. 2014. Exploring the evolutionary foundations of empathy: consolation in monkeys. Evolution and Human Behavior. 35(4):341-49. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2014.04.002
Palagi E, Leone A, Demuru E, Ferrari PF. 2018. High-ranking geladas protect and comfort others after conflicts. Scientific Reports. 8(1):15261. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-018-33548-y
Pérez-Manrique A, Gomila A. 2017. The comparative study of empathy: sympathetic concern and empathic perspective-taking in non-human animals. Biological Reviews. 93(1):248-69. https://doi.org/10.1111/brv.12342
Plotnik JM, de Waal FBM. 2014. Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) reassure others in distress. Peer J. 2:e278. https://doi.org/10.7717/peerj.278
Preis A, Samuni L, Mielke A, Deschner T, Crockford C, Wittig RM. 2018. Urinary oxytocin levels in relation to post-conflict affiliations in wild male chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes verus). Hormones and Behavior. 105:28-40. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yhbeh.2018.07.009
Preston SD, de Waal FBM. 2002. Empathy: its ultimate and proximate bases. Behavioral and Brain Sciences. 25(1):1-71. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0140525x02000018
Romero T, Colmenares F, Aureli F. 2009. Testing the function of reconciliation and third-party affiliation for aggressors in hamadryas baboons (Papio hamadryas hamadryas). American Journal of Primatology. 71(1):60-9. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajp.20619
Romero T, Castellanos MA, de Waal FBM. 2010. Consolation as possible expression of sympathetic concern among chimpanzees. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 107(27):12110-12115. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1006991107
Romero T, de Waal FBM. 2010. Chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes) consolation: third-party identity as a window on possible function. Journal of Comparative Psychology. 124(3):278-86. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0019144
Romero T, Castellanos MA, de Waal FBM. 2011. Post-conflict affiliation by chimpanzees with aggressors: other-oriented versus selfish political strategy. PLoS ONE. 6(7):e22173. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0022173
Sanford EM, Burt ER, Meyers-Manor JE. 2018. Timmy’s in the well: Empathy and prosocial helping in dogs. Learning & Behavior. 46(4):374-86. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13420-018-0332-3
Schino G, Troisi A, Perretta G, Monaco V. 1991. Measuring anxiety in nonhuman primates: effect of lorazepam on macaque scratching. Pharmacology Biochemistry and Behavior. 38(4):889-91. https://doi.org/10.1016/0091-3057(91)90258-4
Schino G, Marini C. 2012. Self-protective function of post-conflict bystander affiliation in mandrills. PLoS ONE. 7(6):e38936. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0038936
Schino G, Sciarretta M. 2015. Effects of aggression on interactions between uninvolved bystanders in mandrills. Animal Behaviour. 100:16-21. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.anbehav.2014.11.013
Seed AM, Clayton NS, Emery NJ. 2007. Post conflict third-party affiliation in rooks, Corvus frugilegus. Current Biology. 17(2):152-8. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2006.11.025
Silk JB. 2007. Animal behavior: conflict management is for the birds. Current Biology. 17(2):R50-R51. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2006.12.014
Smith AS, Wang Z. 2014. Hypothalamic oxytocin mediates social buffering of the stress response. Biological Psychiatry. 76(4):281-8. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2013.09.017
Sterck EH, Watts DP, Van Schaik CP. 1997. The evolution of female social relationships in nonhuman primates. Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology. 41:291-309. https://doi.org/10.1007/s002650050390
Thierry B, Aureli F, Nunn CL, Petit O, Abegg C, de Waal FBM. 2008. A comparative study of conflict resolution in macaques: insights into the nature of trait covariation. Animal Behaviour. 75(3):847-60. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.anbehav.2007.07.006
Thierry B. (2013). Identifying constraints in the evolution of primate societies. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 368(1618):20120342. http://dx.doi.org/ 10.1098/rstb.2012.0342
Uvnäs-Moberg K. 1998. Oxytocin may mediate the benefits of positive social interaction and emotions. Psychoneuroendocrinology. 23(8):819-35. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0306-4530(98)00056-0
Vaish A, Carpenter M, Tomasello M. 2009. Sympathy through affective perspective-taking and its relation to prosocial behavior in toddlers. Developmental Psychology. 45(2):534-43. https://doi.org/10.1037/ a0014322
Webb CE, Romero T, Franks B, de Waal FBM. 2017. Long-term consistency in chimpanzee consolation behaviour reflects empathetic personalities. Nature Communications. 8(1):292. https://doi.org/ 10.1038/s41467-017-00360-7
Webb CE, Verbeek P. 2016. Individual differences in aggressive and peaceful behavior: new insights and future directions. Behaviour. 153(9-11):1139-69. https://doi.org/10.1163/1568539X-00003400
Wittig RM, Boesch C. 2003. The choice of post-conflict interactions in wild chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes). Behaviour. 140(11-12):1527-59. https://doi.org/10.1163/156853903771980701
Wittig RM, Boesch C. 2010. Receiving post-conflict affiliation from the enemy’s friend reconciles former opponents. PLoS ONE. 5(11):e13995. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0013995
Yamamoto C, Morisaka T, Furuta K, Ishibashi T, Yoshida A, Taki M, Mori Y, Amano M. 2015. Post-conflict affiliation as conflict management in captive bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus). Scientific Reports. 5(1):14275. https://doi.org/10.1038/srep14275
Yamamoto C, Ishibashi T, Kashiwagi N, Amano M. 2020. Functions of post- conflict bystander affiliations toward aggressors and victims in bottlenose dolphins. Scientific Reports. 10(1):3776. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-020-60423-6
Zaki J, Williams WC. 2013. Interpersonal emotion regulation. Emotion. 13(5):803-10. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0033839
Publicado
Como Citar
Edição
Seção
Licença
Copyright (c) 2024 Laura Analía Rial, Mariana Bentosela
Este trabalho está licenciado sob uma licença Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License.
Los autores/as conservan los derechos de autor y ceden a la revista el derecho de la primera publicación, con el trabajo registrado con la licencia de atribución de Creative Commons, que permite a terceros utilizar lo publicado siempre que mencionen la autoría del trabajo y a la primera publicación en esta revista.
Analecta Veterinaria por Facultad de Ciencias Veterinarias se distribuye bajo una Licencia Creative Commons Atribución-NoComercial-SinDerivar 4.0 Internacional.
